Charles VII: From Bourges to Paris

Charles VII's transformation from the uncertain "King of Bourges" to "Charles the Victorious" demonstrates remarkable personal and institutional development. The early years of his reign saw continued military struggles, with Burgundy and England controlling most of northern France. However, patient diplomacy, administrative reform, and growing war-weariness among all parties gradually shifted advantages to the French crown.

The Congress of Arras (1435) marked the crucial turning point. Philip the Good of Burgundy, recognizing English inability to maintain French conquests and offered substantial concessions by Charles VII, abandoned the English alliance. This diplomatic revolution isolated English forces and allowed French concentration on reconquest. The ceremonial reconciliation between king and duke, though masking continued tensions, restored the political unity essential for expelling foreign occupiers.

Military reforms under Charles VII created Europe's first permanent royal army. The Compagnies d'Ordonnance (1445) established standing cavalry units paid from regular taxation. These professional soldiers, disciplined and loyal to the crown rather than feudal lords, provided reliable military force. The Francs-Archers created infantry reserves drawn from urban militias. Artillery improvements, particularly the Bureau brothers' innovations, gave French forces siege capabilities that made English-held castles untenable.

Administrative developments paralleled military reforms. The creation of provincial parlements in Toulouse, Bordeaux, and elsewhere extended royal justice. Financial administration became more sophisticated, with the taille (land tax) providing regular revenues. The Grand Conseil emerged as a professional governing body distinct from the noble-dominated royal council. These innovations created bureaucratic structures capable of governing an expanded realm.

The reconquest of Normandy (1449-1450) and Guyenne (1451-1453) demonstrated transformed French capabilities. English forces, long invincible in open battle, could not withstand systematic siege warfare supported by superior artillery. The Battle of Castillon (1453), where English forces were destroyed by French cannons, symbolically ended the Hundred Years War with technology triumphing over traditional courage. Only Calais remained in English hands, a minor irritant rather than existential threat.