Louis XI: Machiavellian Before Machiavelli

Louis XI (r. 1461-1483) practiced the calculating statecraft that Machiavelli would later theorize. Rejecting his father's military glory for patient intrigue, Louis earned the sobriquet "Universal Spider" through his web of diplomatic connections and intelligence networks. His reign consolidated royal power through methods that scandalized contemporaries but proved remarkably effective in extending monarchical authority.

Louis's confrontation with Charles the Bold of Burgundy dominated his reign and demonstrated his preferred tactics. When direct military confrontation at Montlhéry (1465) proved inconclusive, Louis turned to diplomacy, bribery, and patient exploitation of his opponent's weaknesses. He encouraged Swiss and Lorraine opposition to Burgundy, funded rebellions in Burgundian territories, and waited for Charles's military ambitions to overextend Burgundian resources. Charles's death at Nancy (1477) allowed Louis to seize Burgundy proper, though Mary of Burgundy's marriage to Maximilian of Austria preserved the Low Countries' independence.

Domestically, Louis systematically reduced aristocratic autonomy. He broke the power of great feudal houses through confiscations, forced exchanges, and strategic marriages. The Armagnac lands fell to the crown through judicial condemnation. Anjou, Maine, and Provence came through inheritance. By his death, most major principalities had been absorbed into the royal domain. This territorial consolidation provided resources for further centralization while eliminating alternative power centers.

Louis's administrative innovations strengthened royal control. He expanded the system of baillis and seneschals, choosing middle-class lawyers over nobles for these positions. The Parlement's jurisdiction extended through new provincial parlements. Royal justice increasingly superseded seigneurial courts. The postal system, established for governmental communication, improved administrative efficiency. These developments created state apparatus transcending feudal structures.

The king's religious policies balanced traditional piety with political calculation. He lavishly endowed shrines and churches, particularly those claiming miracle-working powers. Yet he also negotiated the Concordat of Amboise (1472) with the papacy, modifying his father's Pragmatic Sanction to increase royal control over episcopal appointments while conceding papal financial rights. This compromise satisfied neither Gallican purists nor papal absolutists but effectively served royal interests.