Consolidating Dictatorial Power

By 1802, Napoleon felt secure enough to extend his power formally. A second plebiscite made him Consul for Life with expanded authority, including the right to name his successor. The vote was even more lopsided than the first—over 3.5 million in favor, fewer than 9,000 opposed. Whether through genuine popularity or effective manipulation, Napoleon had achieved remarkable public legitimacy.

The machinery of dictatorship developed gradually but inexorably. Press censorship eliminated critical journalism while government newspapers promoted official views. A secret police, led by Joseph Fouché, monitored public opinion and suppressed opposition. Military courts tried political crimes, bypassing civilian protections. Yet this authoritarianism was often subtle, maintaining forms of legality while eliminating substance.

Opposition existed but remained fragmented and ineffective. Jacobin republicans resented the abandonment of revolutionary ideals, while royalists hoped to use Napoleon as a stepping stone to Bourbon restoration. Several plots against Napoleon's life, including the failed "Infernal Machine" bombing in 1800, provided pretexts for further repression while demonstrating the regime's enemies could not cooperate effectively.