The Consulate

The new constitution, heavily influenced by Napoleon's ideas, created a Consulate of three members: Napoleon as First Consul, Cambacérès, and Lebrun. While ostensibly collegial, the arrangement gave Napoleon effective control. He possessed executive authority, commanded the military, and appointed most officials. A complex system of councils and assemblies provided the appearance of representative government while ensuring real power remained with the First Consul.

Napoleon's political genius lay in understanding that most French people wanted order more than ideology. The constitution was submitted to a plebiscite that produced an overwhelming endorsement—3 million votes in favor, 1,500 against. While the numbers were certainly manipulated, the margin reflected genuine relief at the prospect of stable government under a proven leader.

The early Consulate combined revolutionary innovations with traditional authoritarianism. Napoleon retained revolutionary achievements that had popular support—abolition of feudalism, religious toleration, careers open to talent—while suppressing political freedoms that most citizens were willing to sacrifice for security. He understood that most people would accept dictatorship if it delivered peace, prosperity, and order.