The Dying Republic

When Napoleon returned from Egypt in October 1799, the French Republic was struggling to survive. The Directory, established after the fall of Robespierre, had brought stability after the Terror but could not deliver the decisive leadership France desperately needed. Military defeats had erased many gains from earlier revolutionary wars. The economy was in chaos, with inflation, food shortages, and massive government debt. Brigandage plagued the countryside, while political factions plotted in the capital.

The Directory's unpopularity created opportunities for ambitious men. Some plotted a royalist restoration, others sought a Jacobin revival, and still others imagined a military dictatorship. Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, one of the Directors and architect of early revolutionary politics, had been seeking a "sword"—a general who could provide the military credibility needed for a successful coup while remaining subordinate to civilian leadership.

Napoleon presented himself as that sword, but he had no intention of playing second fiddle to anyone. His arrival in Paris electrified political circles. Despite the Egyptian campaign's ultimate failure, public opinion remembered Italian triumphs. More importantly, Napoleon possessed something most politicians lacked: the loyalty of soldiers who might determine France's future.