The March to Cairo

The Egyptian campaign began promisingly. Alexandria fell quickly in July 1798, though the march to Cairo tested French endurance. Soldiers accustomed to Italian fertility found themselves crossing waterless desert in wool uniforms. Suicide and mutiny threatened until Napoleon, sharing their hardships, restored morale through personal example and careful propaganda.

The Battle of the Pyramids (July 21, 1798) showcased Napoleonic tactics against a non-European enemy. Facing Mamluk cavalry, he formed infantry squares that shattered medieval charges with disciplined firepower. "Soldiers," he proclaimed before the battle, "forty centuries look down upon you!" The victory opened Cairo and made Napoleon master of Egypt.

Yet problems emerged immediately. Admiral Nelson's destruction of the French fleet at Aboukir Bay (August 1, 1798) stranded the army. The population, initially curious, grew hostile as French requisitions and cultural insensitivity sparked resistance. Napoleon's attempts to portray himself as a liberator from Mamluk oppression rang hollow as French exploitation continued.