Metropolitan Debates

Not all French accepted colonialism uncritically. The Dreyfus Affair sensitized some intellectuals to injustice regardless of victims' identity. Anatole France wrote scathingly about colonial brutality. Georges Clemenceau, before becoming premier, denounced imperial adventures draining resources from domestic needs.

The socialist movement split over colonialism. Orthodox Marxists saw imperialism as capitalism's highest stage, inevitably generating its own destruction. Reformist socialists accepted "humanitarian" colonialism bringing progress to backward peoples. Jean Jaurès evolved from supporting civilizing missions to condemning colonial exploitation.

Feminist positions proved equally divided. Some saw colonialism spreading women's rights to societies practicing polygamy, child marriage, and female seclusion. Others recognized that colonialism often worsened women's positions by destroying traditional protections without providing alternatives. The debate revealed feminism's own cultural assumptions.

The Catholic Church maintained complex colonial relationships. Missionaries provided education and healthcare, often defending indigenous peoples against worst abuses. Yet they also destroyed traditional religions, separated children from families, and served as colonialism's spiritual arm. Colonial subjects often adopted Christianity syncretically, maintaining traditional beliefs beneath Catholic facades.