Scientific Institutions and Democracy

The Belle Époque democratized scientific knowledge through new institutions. The Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers offered free public lectures on scientific topics. Workers attended Sunday sessions on electricity, chemistry, and mechanics. Science belonged to citizens, not just elites.

Scientific journalism flourished. Camille Flammarion's astronomy books sold hundreds of thousands of copies. La Science Illustrée magazine brought discoveries to middle-class homes. L'Illustration's engravings made visible the invisible—microbes, atoms, distant planets.

Museums transformed from elite collections to public education. The Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle reorganized displays for general audiences. The Palais de la Découverte (planned but not built until 1937) envisioned interactive science education. Democracy required scientific citizens.

Women's scientific education slowly expanded. The École Normale Supérieure de Jeunes Filles at Sèvres, established in 1881, trained female teachers in sciences. Though curricula differed from men's schools—less mathematics, more "practical" science—it produced France's first generation of female science educators.

Scientific societies proliferated. The Société Astronomique de France welcomed amateurs alongside professionals. The Société Géologique included collectors and academics. These organizations created communities transcending class through shared curiosity.