The Retreat from Moscow

Napoleon's decision to retreat from Moscow in October 1812 began the most catastrophic military disaster in European history. The Grande Armée, already weakened by battle and disease, faced the horrors of winter retreat across devastated territory while Russian forces harassed their withdrawal. The retreat became a rout that destroyed Napoleon's military reputation and the empire that depended on it.

The retreat's causes were multiple and reinforcing. The early winter was particularly severe, but weather alone cannot explain the disaster. The army's logistical system had already collapsed, leaving soldiers without adequate food, clothing, or medical care. Disease, particularly typhus, killed more soldiers than combat or cold. The psychological impact of retreat broke the discipline that had held the army together.

The crossing of the Berezina River in November 1812 epitomized the campaign's horrors. French engineers heroically constructed bridges under fire while the army's remnants fought desperate battles to escape Russian encirclement. Though Napoleon and part of his army escaped, the crossing's cost was enormous. The sight of the Emperor's invincible army reduced to a starving rabble shocked European opinion and encouraged resistance throughout the empire.