Waterloo

The Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815) was Napoleon's final gamble, an attempt to defeat coalition forces before they could combine their overwhelming strength against French armies. The campaign that preceded the battle demonstrated Napoleon's continued tactical skill, while the battle itself revealed both his genius and the factors that ultimately ensured his defeat.

Napoleon's strategy for the Belgian campaign was characteristically audacious. Rather than await coalition attacks on French territory, he struck first at British and Prussian forces that had not yet coordinated their operations. The victories at Ligny and Quatre Bras on June 16 demonstrated that French tactical superiority remained intact while showing that rapid offensive action could achieve local advantages.

Yet the Waterloo campaign also revealed the accumulated effects of years of warfare on French military capability. The army Napoleon led into Belgium, though brave and loyal, lacked the experience and coordination of earlier forces. Many veterans had been lost in previous campaigns, while newer recruits had not achieved the seamless coordination that had characterized the Grande Armée at its peak.

The Battle of Waterloo itself epitomized both Napoleon's strengths and weaknesses as a military commander. His tactical deployment was skillful, his artillery preparation effective, and his cavalry charges spectacular. The Old Guard's final assault represented the culmination of twenty years of military innovation and battlefield excellence. Yet strategic mistakes—delayed attack, inadequate reconnaissance, poor coordination between subordinates—created opportunities that Wellington and Blücher exploited decisively.

The battle's outcome hinged on factors beyond Napoleon's control. Blücher's timely arrival with Prussian forces transformed a closely contested engagement into French defeat, while Wellington's defensive tactics neutralized French advantages in cavalry and artillery. Most critically, the French army's morale, though initially high, cracked under the pressure of prolonged combat against increasing odds.