The Road to Liberation

By 1944, de Gaulle had transformed himself from unknown brigadier to recognized leader of Fighting France. But his ultimate test still lay ahead: would liberated France accept his authority? The Allies planned to treat France as occupied territory under military government. Rival French factions waited to challenge his leadership. Everything depended on the next few months.

Preparing for D-Day

De Gaulle learned of the D-Day plans only days before the invasion—a deliberate snub by Roosevelt and a source of lasting bitterness. The Allies had prepared proclamations and currency for occupied France without consulting him. They planned to administer liberated territories through Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories (AMGOT), as in Italy.

De Gaulle's response was swift and decisive. He refused to broadcast the message the Allies had prepared, instead delivering his own address to the French people. He ordered French liaison officers to take administrative control wherever possible. Most importantly, he prepared to return to France immediately, regardless of Allied wishes.

The Battle of France in 1944 was as much political as military. In each liberated town, competing authorities vied for control: Allied military commanders, Resistance leaders, communist partisans, and Gaullist administrators. De Gaulle's representatives, armed with detailed plans prepared in London and Algiers, usually prevailed through superior organization and the general's mystique.

The Return to Paris

Paris was the prize—symbolically and politically. De Gaulle understood that whoever liberated and controlled Paris would control France. As Allied forces approached in August 1944, the Paris Resistance rose in revolt, partly to liberate their city, partly to establish facts on the ground before de Gaulle arrived.

The communist-dominated Resistance in Paris presented de Gaulle's greatest challenge. They had borne the brunt of occupation, suffered terrible losses, and felt entitled to a leading role in liberation. Their leader, Colonel Rol-Tanguy, commanded significant armed forces and popular support.

De Gaulle's handling of the liberation of Paris was masterful. He ensured that French forces—General Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division—would be first into the city. He arrived himself on August 25, going straight to the Ministry of War—symbol of legitimate authority—rather than the Hôtel de Ville, where Resistance leaders waited.

The next day's parade down the Champs-Élysées was de Gaulle's apotheosis. Despite sniper fire—whether from German stay-behinds or communist provocateurs remains unclear—he walked tall and unmoved through crowds delirious with joy. In that moment, he embodied France itself: proud, unbowed, victorious. Years of claiming to represent France were validated by popular acclaim.

Establishing Authority

But parades were not enough. France in 1944 was on the edge of chaos: no functioning government, armed bands controlling many areas, acute shortages of everything, demands for vengeance against collaborators. De Gaulle had to establish authority quickly or risk civil war.

His approach was characteristic: bold assertion of authority combined with strategic compromise. He incorporated Resistance leaders into his provisional government but ensured they were outnumbered by his own appointees. He approved the creation of special courts to try collaborators but insisted on legal procedures. He nationalized key industries—partly to prevent communist takeover, partly to demonstrate social reform.

Most importantly, he moved quickly to disarm irregular forces. The various Resistance militias were incorporated into the regular army or disbanded. This was delicate and dangerous—many resisters felt betrayed, and some communist units initially refused. But de Gaulle's combination of firmness and recognition of their service generally prevailed.

International Recognition

Even as he established control inside France, de Gaulle had to fight for international recognition. Roosevelt continued to refuse recognition of the provisional government. American commanders in France tried to impose military government, issuing their own currency and proclamations.

De Gaulle's response was to create facts that could not be ignored. His administration functioned effectively. French forces participated increasingly in Allied operations. Most importantly, he had the clear support of the French people. Even Roosevelt could not indefinitely ignore a functioning government with popular legitimacy.

The breakthrough came in October 1944, when the United States finally recognized the Provisional Government of the French Republic. It was a grudging recognition, extracted by necessity rather than granted by choice. But it marked de Gaulle's final victory in establishing Free France as the legitimate continuation of the French state.

The Price of Resistance

As 1944 ended, de Gaulle could reflect on an extraordinary achievement. From nothing—no legal authority, no territory, no resources—he had created a movement that restored French sovereignty and French pride. The boy who refused to play the defeated enemy had become the man who refused to accept defeat for France.

But the price had been high. Thousands of Free French soldiers had died in battles from Africa to Italy to France itself. Thousands more resisters had been tortured and executed. Families had been torn apart, communities divided. The moral compromises of resistance—the assassinations, the reprisals, the necessary betrayals—would haunt many for years.

De Gaulle himself had paid a personal price. The simple soldier of 1940 had become a complex political leader, capable of manipulation and ruthlessness when necessary. His family had endured exile and poverty. Most painfully, his beloved daughter Anne had died in 1948, a private grief he bore with public stoicism.

Yet for de Gaulle, the price was worth paying. France had been restored not just as a state but as a great power. A permanent seat on the UN Security Council, occupation zone in Germany, voice in shaping the post-war world—all this flowed from his refusal to accept defeat in 1940. The resistance he embodied had saved not just French independence but French self-respect.

The general who had spoken to an empty room at the BBC on June 18, 1940, had become the leader of a restored nation. But new challenges awaited. Winning the war had been the first task; now came the harder challenge of winning the peace. The unity forged in resistance would soon fracture in the face of peace's complexities. The Cross of Lorraine had been a powerful symbol of resistance; what symbols would serve for reconstruction?# Part 3: Liberation and First Presidency (1944-1946)